Notes 

Units 4.4-4.8

 

In the Early Modern era, European focus began to establish maritime empires over land-based empires. Throughout Africa, the Portuguese focused on establishing a “trading-post” empire throughout Africa’s Atlantic coast and the Cape of Good Hope. To accomplish this, the Portuguese would form alliances with local rulers. 

• The Europeans would trade gunpowder and cannons in exchange for enslaved people in Africa, presenting a military advantage that motivated many African states to comply. An example of this would be the Kingdom of Dahomey, which grew incredibly strong over time by trading African slaves to Europeans. 

• The Asante Empire and Kingdom of Kongo are two examples of African kingdoms who grew as a result of maritime trading networks (established by the colonizers).

• On the other end of the continent, Vasco da Gama would conquer the Swahili city-states in East Africa, controlling trade and negatively impacting the strength of the native population. 

 

As colonization swept the world, Japan was incredibly proactive in protecting their national sovereignty. Japan had initially tolerated smaller populations of the Portuguese and Dutch as traders and missionaries, but many Japanese converted to Christianity.

• As a result, in 1587 Japan would ban all Christian worship (this was triggered after conversion would ruin Buddhist shrines). 

• Japan would also enter an isolationist approach, limiting foreign trade and getting rid of almost all foreigners. The Japanese were also prohibited from travelling abroad, and foreign trade was only limited to a small island in the Nagasaki harbor. 

 

In China, following Zheng He’s voyages, the Ming dynasty also adopted an isolationist approach and foreign trade was restricted. Dockyards were destroyed and there were limits to ship size. 

 

As colonization grew across the globe, many colonial economies adopted different labor systems. Some of these labor systems guiding commerce include: 

 

• Indentured Servitude: This is where servants were on a contract for a specific period of time in exchange for transportation to the Americas. 

• Chattel Slavery: This was an incredibly unethical practice where people were thought to be colonizer property that could be purchased and sold. 

• Encomienda system: This was a Spanish system where landowners would force Indigenous people to work in exchange for protection and resources.

• Hacienda System: This was a system where wealthy landowners with large estates would use forced labor to grow crops for local markets.

• Mita system: This was a system that was originally practiced by the Incas. Basically, native populations were forced to send a specific percentage of their male population to execute manual labor (often in dangerous silver mines). 

 

These labor systems almost completely transformed African society. More slaves were being bought for the labor demands of these conquered lands, and polygyny rose throughout Africa. As African men were being sold as slaves, the male population left in Africa drastically declined. Resultingly, polygyny (where a man has multiple wives) rose throughout the continent. 

• Political shifts were also evident, where African kingdoms would grow on to be economically dependent on European firearms and resources, creating an unfair advantage as certain kingdoms had more advanced firearms compared to others. 

• The Triangular trade (also known as the Columbian exchange) would introduce American foods across the world, leading to population growth in Africa as well. 

• African traditions would go on to blend in with Catholic perspectives as a result of colonization, leading to new syncretic belief systems. 

 

 

With the world completely transforming as maritime empires dominated throughout the Early Modern era, many economic structures completely altered as well. The “Commercial Revolution” refers to the worldwide shift away from local trade to an international trade system rooted in gold and silver. As European forces gained colonies globally, they were unveiled to new trade routes and access to new resources. 

• “The Price Revolution” refers to the inflation caused by the increased influx of silver and gold from the Americas into circulation. As more money was being made, people could purchase less and less with the same amount. 

 

New economic models such as joint-stock companies also arose. Here, companies allowed investors to purchase smaller shares of their company. 

• This introduced the concept of limited liability, where investors were not responsible for the companies beyond their investment, introducing a sense of security. Examples of this included the British East India and Dutch East India Companies. 

 

The phenomena aforementioned led to the creation of the Atlantic Trading System (Triangular Trade), where manufactured goods would be sent from Europe to Africa, enslaved Africans to the Americas, and raw materials were sent from the Americas to Europe. 

• This also led to monopolies, where European rulers would specifically designate exclusive trading rights to particular merchants or companies. 

 

Politics also rapidly transformed throughout the Americas. Viceroys were administrative officials appointed by the Spanish royalty to lead the colonies. 

 

 

 

As European forces expanded their influence in Africa, internal challenges arose. Indigenous groups were not hesitant to resist these imperialistic forces. 

 

Africa:

• Ana Nzinga (Ndongo): Ana Nzinga would go on to become the leader of Ndongo, which is present-day Angola. While the Portuguese would go on to conduct repeated slave raids throughout the kingdom (any many neighboring kingdoms), Nzinga introduced a treaty to end the raids and ally with African rivals for protection. 

• The Portuguese went on to break the treaty, causing Nzinga to flee Ndongo and take over the nearby kingdom of Matamba.

• While in Matamba, Nzinga went on to incite a rebellion back home in Ndongo, one that was supported by the Dutch. Nzinga went on to successfully rule Matamba into economic success. 

 

The Russian Empire: Unlike many European forces at the time, the Russian Empire went on to expand its land-holdings, causing conflict between the government and smaller populations. 

• The Cossacks: The Cossacks were runaway peasants who lived near the Black Sea. The Cossacks were paid by Russian Tsars to lead Russian expansion into Siberia.

•  In 1774, Yemelyan Pugachev, a Cossack, initiated a rebellion against Catherine the Great, known as Pugachev’s Rebellion. Here, Pugachev pretended to be Catherine’s dead husband, ensuring the population that he would end serfdom. This allowed Pugachev to go on and control land between the Volga River and the Ural mountains. 

 

South Asia: While the Mughal Empire dominated throughout India, a Hindu warrior group called the Marathas resisted their rule through various battles. This led to the end of Mughal power, which was replaced by the Maratha Empire in 1818. 

 

The Americas: Both Indigenous populations and enslaved Africans went on to challenge colonial authority. 

• The Pueblo Revolt occurred in present-day New Mexico against the Spanish colonial force. The Pueblo and Apache tribes rightfully fought back against religious conversions and encroachment on their lands. The rebel forces would go on to kill around 400 Spaniards  and drive them out of native lands. This marked one of the first successful acts of Native resistance. 

• Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War): This was a major effort by the Indigenous population of Southern New England to drive the British forces out. This event led to the destruction of multiple English towns, but the British inevitably regained control over the land. 

• The Maroon Wars: When Jamaica was a British colony, descendents of the Maroons (the runaway enslaved people) fought for their freedom. Queen Nanny (who escaped slavery) worked to unite the Maroons against the British, and is still acknowledged to be a Jamaican hero. 

• The 1663 Gloucester County Rebellion is another example of resistance between white indentured servants in Virginia and enslaved Africans. 

 

As the world began to change, so did societal relationships and hierarchies. As many European forces began to colonize the world, they often instated policies that would intentionally discriminate against native populations. States often supported “elite classes” who would go on to both challenge and support central authority. 

In Ottoman Society: The ulama (scholarly experts of Islamic law) were seen as Ottoman bureaucratic authority. 

• Janissaries were considered to have great military power and prestige. They were recruited through the devshirme system (where Christian, Balkan boys were taken and trained to eventually become Ottoman military officials). 

• Viziers were loyal advisors to the Sultans, often greatly influencing the government. 

• Timar System: This was a structured system where the sultan would dedicate land or tax revenues to soldiers to ensure loyalty. 

• Under Ottoman rule, non-Muslims were to pay the jizya tax and could not obtain the highest government positions. They were also restricted to specific residential areas, not free to live wherever they desired. 

• Women: Throughout the Ottoman Empire, wives and concubines of the Sultan would reside in a living space known as a harem. They would often convince their husbands to promote their children as heirs, leading to the term “harem politics”. 

• Roxelana is known as an example of a woman who achieved social mobility. She was stolen from Eastern Europe and was sold into slavery, later becoming the wife of Suleiman the Magnificent.

 

Under the Mughal Empire, Akbar the Great was known for his religious tolerance and military success. He ended the practice of the jizya tax, supported Sikhism, would pay for Catholic churches, and would give land grants to both Hindus and Muslims. 

 

Qing Dynasty: The Manchus of Manchuria led the Qing dynasty, ruling over the ethnically Han Chinese up to 1912. Unlike the Mongols, the Qing were less religiously tolerant and prioritized making Manchu culture more widespread. Despite this, they still employed the Chinese civil service exam and bureaucratic structure. 

• The Qing required all men, including Han men, to wear the Manchu hairstyle as a sign of submission.

 

Europe: 

• Jews were expelled from England, France and Spain, and throughout history, their diaspora can be split into two groups. Sephardic Jews trace their heritage to Spain while Ashkenazi Jews are from central and eastern Europe. Fortunately, prejudice against jews began to decline as a result of the Enlightenment, and nations like The Netherlands would become tolerant of Jews. They would go on to be impactful in the sectors of banking and commerce. 

 

In Russia, society was split into distinct social classes. 

• The Boyars were the noble, landowning class considered to be at the top of society. Ivan IV (Ivan The Terrible) would go on to clash with the boyars when he would confiscate boyar land and force them to move to Moscow in order to monitor them. 

• When peasants would crumble into debt, they would enter a state of serfdom. As serfs, they were bound to land as it was sold, and would execute labor in exchange for protection. 

In the Americas, the arrival of the Europeans led to the creation of a social hierarchy:

 

• Peninsulares were at the top, being individuals born on the Iberian Peninsula (Spain/Portugal).

• Creoles: Individuals of European ancestry that were born in the Americas. 

• Castas: People who were of mixed-race ancestry. 

• Mestizos: People who were mixed with European and Indigenous ancestry. 

• Mulattoes: People who were of both European and African ancestry. 

• Zambos: People who were of both indigenous and African ancestry.

• At the very bottom was the indigenous population and enslaved Africans.