Notes 

5.1, 5.7: The Enlightenment and its Byproducts

 

One of the biggest phenomena of the Classical period was the Enlightenment and the impact of its ideals on worldwide society. It was a way of thinking that emphasized reason over tradition and individualism. The Enlightenment arose out of the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance humanism. 

 

• Deism asserted itself as a popular philosophy during this era where it was thought that God had created the universe, but that people had to handle its affairs using reason.

 

Some of the factors contributing to the Enlightenment include:

→ Empiricism: This was a concept developed by Sir Francis Bacon, and it emphasizes on the idea that our wisdom and knowledge stemmed from lived experience over religion.

→Many thinkers believed that if we applied reason (and fact-based thinking) to natural concepts (like ideas sprouted out of religion), society would progress.

 

As we discuss this innovative way of thinking, it is critical to acknowledge the thinkers that contributed to its proliferation:

• Thomas Hobbes: Developed the idea of a social contract. Essentially, there is a shared responsibility between citizens and their government. Citizens give up some of their rights to the government for protection and order. 

• John Locke: Recognized that all humans were given natural rights (which can be simplified to life, liberty and property). He implied that if a government was not protecting these rights, citizens had the power to revolt.

• Baron Montesquieu: Emphasized on the idea of checks and balances and an overall separation of powers within a government.

• Voltaire: Discussed freedom or religion and speech.

• Jean-Jacques Rosseau: Expanded on the idea of a social contract.

 

While these individuals introduced ideas benefiting societal order and structure, change was visible in every corner of Classical society. 

 

• Prior to the Industrial Revolution, mercantilism was the most prominent economic practice. This is where a mother country (often a colonizer) economically benefits at the expense of another (the colonized nation). It utilizes the resources of the colonized nation and only permits commerce between the colonized nation to be done with its mother country. 

 

Economists like Adam Smith argued against mercantilism and highlighted the benefits of laissez-faire capitalism (where governments would not impact the economy). Smith highlighted the need for people to follow their own self-interest in commerce, and is considered to be the Father of Capitalism. He is well known for his book, The Wealth of Nations. 

 

On the other hand, Karl Marx is known for his socialist ideology, publishing the Communist Manifesto in 1848 which questioned capitalism and its creation of social inequalities. 

• Marx introduced the division of society into two classes. The bourgeoisie was composed of the middle class and owned means of production. The proletariat, on the other hand, were the working class who would execute all the labor needed to make production possible. 

• Marx argued that over time, the proletariat would group and control the means of production which would eventually lead to communism where all social divisions end. 

 

As the economy changed, different business models arose. These include:

• Corporations, which is a legal entity that is owned by stockholders. 

• Monopolies, which are when some corporations grew to be so large that they ridded of all competition in their respective fields (ex. John D. Rockefeller and his oil monopoly). 

• Limited Liability, where stockholders were not responsible for the whole amount of the company’s debts and would only face the losses of the amount they invested. 

• Transnational Companies are businesses that operate around the world, surpassing national boundaries. Over time, this helped these companies help their respective nations achieve economic and political success. Some examples of these transnational companies include the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (a British-owned bank focusing on corporate investment) and the Unilever Corporation (a Dutch and British venture producing household goods like soap from African palm oil to sell to an international audience). 

 

Outside of traditional transnational companies, there are various other situations in which people resorted to state expansion to fulfill their personal economic goals. In this course, it is critical to study the case of Cecil Rhodes. 

• Rhodes established the transnational De Beers Diamonds company, earning an immense amount of wealth. He hoped to monopolize the industry. 

• With this excess wealth, he attempted to connect British colonies throughout Africa (from Cape to Cairo).

• While simultaneously profiting off of resource exploitation, Rhodes exploited native laborers for his personal needs, underpaying them and forcing them to thrive under treacherous conditions. 

 

Socially, women began to advocate for increased power and representation in society. Referencing Enlightenment ideals, the feminist movement arose which defended the equality of gender. 

 

After the rise of industrialization, family structures significantly altered. Working-class women would now find themselves working in factories, even though they were often paid half of what men would. Different members of families would work at different factories, and would be away from each other for long hours at a time. 

 

• With this being said, a woman not working was seen as a status symbol. Men took great pride in earning enough to support their wives. Enforcing the cult of domesticity (which highlights that a woman should be at home caring for her family), housewives were often seen as safe havens for their families to return to after long days of work. 

 

For the purpose of this course, it is critical to be well-versed in the following feminists:

• Mary Wollstonecraft - Wrote the novel A Vindication of the Rights of Woman which was a novel arguing a woman’s right to education and contribution to society.

• Seneca Falls Convention - A crucial meeting in the United States featuring activists like Elizabeth Cady Stanton where feminists spoke in favor of women’s suffrage (right to vote). 

 

Socially, the Enlightenment inspired various social movements, including abolitionism which was a movement advocating for the end fo slavery. Abolitionists believed that all enslaved people were entitled to freedom and natural rights.

 

Likewise, other citizens hoped to end serfdom. Throughout Europe, peasant revolts led to its eventual elimination from society. 

 

Zionism, which was initially led by Theodor Hezri, was a movement that advocated for the creation of a Jewish homeland to address European anti-semitism. 

 

As empires began to fall apart, feelings of nationalism proliferated as people began to feel increasingly more loyal to those who shared their language and culture. Within empires, many groups began to motion for the establishment of their own nations on the basis of nationalistic ideals. 

 

Amongst some, socialism grew as many individuals hoped for the government to own and distribute all means of production to reduce inequities in society.